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The Ancient Yan and the Ye-maek Chosun
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Áߺθ¸ÁÖ-Çѹݵµ Áö¿ª¿¡¼­ÀÇ ºø»ì¹«´Ì Åä±â·Î ´ëÇ¥µÇ´Â ½Å¼®±â½Ã´ë´Â ±â¿øÀü 8000³â°æ¿¡ ½ÃÀ۵ȴÙ. »çÇØ(ÞÛú­), È«»ê, ½Å¶ô(ãæÕ¥) ¹®È­ÀÇ »ê¹°ÀÎ Áñ¹®(ñîÚ£)Åä±â´Â ÇѹݵµÀÇ ºø»ì¹«´Ì Åä±â¿Í À¯»çÇϸç, Áß±¹º»ÅäÀÇ ½Å¼®±â Åä±âÇüÅ¿ʹ ¾ÆÁÖ °Å¸®°¡ ¸Ö´Ù°í Barnes(1993: 109)´Â ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. Èı⠽ż®±â¸¦ »ó¡ÇÏ´Â »õ·Î¿î Çü½ÄÀÇ ¹Î ¹«´Ì Åä±â´Â ±â¿øÀü 2000³â°æ¿¡ Áߺθ¸ÁÖ-Çѹݵµ Àü Áö¿ª¿¡¼­ ³ªÅ¸³­´Ù. ¿ä³ç¼º°ú Èæ·æ°­¼ºÀÇ ¸¹Àº À¯ÀûÁö¿¡¼­ ¹ß±¼µÈ Åä±âµéÀº ±âŸ ¸¸ÁÖÁö¿ª°ú Çѹݵµ¿¡¼­ ÃâÅäµÈ ¹Î ¹«´ÌÅä±â¿Í À¯»çÇÏ´Ù. 3 ½Å¼®±â À¯Àû¿¡¼­ ¹ß±¼µÈ ºø»ì¹«´Ì Åä±â¿¡¼­ º¼ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â ¸¸ÁÖÀ¯¿ª°ú Çѹݵµ »çÀÌÀÇ À¯»ç¼ºÀº ûµ¿±â ½Ã´ë¿¡ µé¾î¼­µµ ¹Î ¹«´ÌÅä±â, °íÀε¹, ûµ¿°Ë µîÀÇ ÇüÅ·ΠÁö¼ÓµÈ´Ù. 4 °íÀε¹Àº ¿¹¸Æ Áö¹èÃþÀÇ ÁöÀ§¸¦ ³ªÅ¸³»´Â »ó¡À̸ç, ¸¸ÁÖÀ¯¿ª°ú ÇѹݵµÀÇ ¡°µ¿ÀÌ¡± ¹®È­ÀÇ Æ¯Â¡À̱⵵ ÇÏ´Ù. °íÀε¹ ÃàÁ¶ °üÇàÀº ±â¿øÀü 300³â°æ¿¡ »ç¶óÁ³´Ù. 5

¸¸ÁÖ À¯¿ª¿¡¼­´Â ±â¿øÀü 1500³â°æ¿¡ ûµ¿±â ½Ã´ë°¡ ½ÃÀ۵ǰí, Çѹݵµ¿¡¼­´Â ±â¿øÀü 1000³â°æ¿¡ ½ÃÀ۵ȴÙ. 6 Barnes(1993: 162)´Â ¡°Çѹݵµ¿¡¼­ÀÇ Ã»µ¿±â½Ã´ë ±× ÀÚü´Â ¸¸ÁÖ À¯¿ªÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ¿ä³ç½Ä (ºñÆÄÇü) µ¿°ËÀÌ ÁøÀÔ ÇØ ¿À´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î Á¤Àǵȴ١±°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. ¿ä³ç½Ä µ¿°ËÀº, ÇÑÁ·µéÀÌ ¸¸µç ûµ¿°Ë°ú´Â ´Þ¸®, Ä®ÀÇ ³¯°ú ÀÚ·ç°¡ °¢±â µû·Î ÁÖÁ¶µÈ´Ù. Nelson(1993: 133)Àº ¡°¿ä³ç½Ä µ¿°ËÀº Çѹݵµ»Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¿äµ¿¹Ýµµ¿Í ¹ßÇØ¸¸ ¿¬¾È¿¡¼­ dzºÎÇÏ°Ô ¹ß°ßµÇÁö¸¸, ¸¸¸®À强 À̳²ÀÇ Áß±¹º»Åä¿¡¼­´Â ¹ß°ßµÇÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù¡±°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. ûµ¿À¸·Î ´Ü°Ë, È­»ìÃË, °Å¿ï(ÔÞÌð), ³¬½Ã °í¸®, µµ³¢ µîÀ» ¸¸µé´ø °ÅǪÁý°ú Á¾, (µ¿¹°Çü»ó) Çõ´ë°í¸®, ´ÜÃß, ¸¶±¸·ù(Ø©Îý×¾), ¸¶Â÷ÀÇ Àå½Äǰ µî ±âŸ ûµ¿Á¦Ç°µéÀÌ Çѹݵµ Àü¿ªÀÇ ¹Î ¹«´ÌÅä±â À¯ÀûÁö¿¡¼­ ÃâÅäµÈ´Ù. 7 Çѹݵµ¿¡¼­ dzºÎÇÏ°Ô ¹ß°ßµÇ´Â µ¿°Ë°ú µ¿°æÀÇ À¯·¡´Â Çϰ¡Á¡ »óÃþ ¹®È­(1100-300 BC)·Î ÃßÀûµÈ´Ù. 8

Çѹݵµ ¼­ºÎ¿¡¼­ ¹ß°ßµÈ (°¡Àå ¿À·¡µÈ) ½ÒÀº ±â¿øÀü 2400-2100³â°æÀÇ °ÍÀ¸·Î ÃøÁ¤µÈ´Ù. 9 Áß±¹ ³²ºÎ¿¡¼­ ½Ò ³ó»ç¸¦ Áþ´ø »ç¶÷µéÀÌ È²ÇØ¸¦ °Ç³Ê ÇѹݵµÀÇ ³²ºÎ¿¡¼­ »ýÅÂÇÐÀûÀ¸·Î ºñ½ÁÇÑ Æ´»õ¸¦ ¹ß°ßÇϰí Á¤ÂøÇßÀ» °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù. ¿©¸§Ã¶¿¡ ºÏµ¿ÂÊÀ¸·Î ºÎ´Â °èÀýdzÀ» Ÿ¸é, ¾çÀÚ°­ Çϱ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ÇѹݵµÀÇ ³²¼­ºÎ±îÁö ½±°Ô µµ´ÞÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. 10

   
¡ã A.2.3. Location of¡°the Long Wall built by Yan¡±(Di Cosmo, 2002, p. 141)
11. Chi-feng; 12. Jian-ping;
13. Fu-xin; and 14. Karachin Banner
¿¬(æØ) ³ª¶ó¿Í ¿¬ À强(íþàò)ÀÇ ¼º°Ý

»ç±â¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¼­ÁÖÀÇ ¹«¿Õ(r.1049-43)ÀÌ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ À̺¹ µ¿»ýÀÎ ¼Ò°øÀ» (ºÏ)¿¬ÀÇ ÅëÄ¡ÀÚ·Î ºÀÇß°í, ¶Ç (»ó³ª¶ó ¸¶Áö¸· ¿ÕÀÇ Ä£Ã´ÀÎ) ±âÀÚ¸¦ ¿¬³ª¶ó ÀÌ¿ôÀÎ Á¶¼±ÀÇ ÅëÄ¡ÀÚ·Î ºÀÇß´Ù. »ç¸¶ÃµÀº º×À¸·Î ¸î ±ÛÀÚ Àû¾î, °í´ë ÇÑÁ· ¿Õ½Ç Á¾Ä£µéÀ» ÀüÅëÀûÀ¸·Î µ¿È£¿Í ¿¹¸Æ-Åü±¸½ºÀÇ ¿µ¿ªÀ¸·Î º¸ÀÌ´Â Áö¿ª¿¡ À§Ä¡ÇÑ ±¹°¡µéÀÇ ½ÃÁ¶·Î ¸¸µç °ÍÀÌ´Ù. »ç±â¿¡´Â ¼º¿Õ(à÷èÝ, 1042-36 BC) ¶§, ¼Ò°øÀÌ ¼¶¼­(àí°ú ±× ¼­ÂÊ, ȤÀº ¼¶ÀÇ ¼­ÂÊ)¸¦ ´Ù½º¸®°í, ÁÖ°øÀÌ ±× µ¿ÂÊÀ» ´Ù½º¸°´Ù´Â ±â·ÏÀÌ ³ª¿Â´Ù. »ç±â´Â ¶Ç, ¼Ò°ø¿¡°Ô ºÀÇØÁÖ¾ú´Ù´Â ºÏ¿¬(æØ) ¸»°í ³²¿¬ À̶ó´Â °Íµµ ÀÖ¾úÀ» °ÍÀ̶ó°í ÁÖ¼®À» ´Þ¾Ò´Ù. 11

Àü±¹½Ã´ë¿¡ ÆíÂùµÈ °üÀÚ(ηí­)¸¦ º¸¸é, Á¦(ðº)ÀÇ È¯°ø(ü¸Íë 685-43 BC)¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±â·Ï¿¡¼­ Á¶¼±ÀÌ µîÀåÇϸç, ÀüÇÑ(îñùÓ)¶§ ¾²¿©Áø »ç¸¶Ãµ(145-90 BC)ÀÇ »ç±â¿¡´Â ¿¬ ³ª¶ó¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±â·Ï ¼Ó¿¡ ºÎ¿©¿Í °íÁ¶¼±ÀÌ ÇÔ²² ³ªÅ¸³­´Ù. ÈÄÇѼ­(ý­ùÓßö)´Â ¿¹(çØ), ¿ÁÀú(èªîÁ), °í±¸·Á°¡ º»·¡ Á¶¼± ¶¥¿¡ À§Ä¡ÇØÀÖ´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. 12

ÁÖ(ñ², 1122 ȤÀº 1027-256 BC) Á¶Á¤ÀÌ ¼è¸ÁÀÇ ±æ·Î Á¢¾îµé¾î ±â¿øÀü 403³â°æºÎÅÍ´Â Àü±¹½Ã´ë°¡ ½ÃÀ۵ȴÙ. À§·«(êàÕÔ, ÔÔì¨îî ß²ùÛÀü¿¡ Àοë)¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ÁÖ ¿Õ½ÇÀÌ ¼è¾àÇØÁöÀÚ ¿¬ÀÇ Áö¹èÀÚ°¡ [±â¿øÀü 323³â¿¡] ½º½º·Î ¿ÕÀ» ĪÇß´Ù. ±×·¯ÀÚ ±âÀÚÀÇ ÈļÕÀÎ Á¶¼±ÀÇ Áö¹èÀÚµµ ½º½º·Î ¿ÕÀ̶ó ĪÇß°í, ÀÌµé µÎ ³ª¶ó´Â ¼­·Î ÀüÀï Á÷Àü±îÁö °¬´Ù. °á±¹ ±â¿øÀü 300³â°æ¿¡ Á¶¼±°ú ¿¬³ª¶ó »çÀÌ¿¡ ÀüÀïÀÌ ¹ú¾îÁ³´Ù. ¿¬Àº Áø°³(òÚËÒ, BC 311-297³â¿¡ Ȱ¾à)¸¦ ½ÃÄÑ Á¶¼±À» °ø°ÝÇß´Ù. 13

»ç±â Èä³ëÀüÀ» º¸¸é Áø°³¶ó´Â À̸§ÀÇ Àå¼ö°¡ µ¿È£¿¡ ÀÎÁú·Î ÀâÇô°¡ ÀÖÀ» ¶§ µ¿È£Á·ÀÇ ÀüÆøÀûÀÎ ½ÅÀÓÀ» ¹Þ¾ÒÀ¸³ª, ¿¬³ª¶ó·Î µ¹¾Æ¿Â ÈÄ, µ¿È£¸¦ ±Þ½ÀÇÏ¿© 1õ¸® ¹ÛÀ¸·Î ÂѾƳ´٠ÇÑ´Ù. »ç±â´Â À̾î, ´ç½Ã ¿¬ÀÌ ¿µÅ並 Å©°Ô ³ÐÇô ¿À´Ã³¯ÀÇ ³­ÇÏ(灤ùÁ) ÁÖº¯¿¡ ¿ä¼­¿Í ¿äµ¿±ºÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿© 5°³ÀÇ ±ºÀ» ¼³Ä¡Çϰí, Á¶¾ç¿¡¼­ ¾çÆò±îÁö À强À» ½×¾Ò´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. 14

»ç±â¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé óÀ½¿¡ ¿¬³ª¶ó°¡ ½×°í, ÈÄ¿¡ Áø³ª¶ó°¡ ´Ù½Ã ½×Àº À强ÀÌ ¿äµ¿¿¡±îÁö À̸£·¶´Ù ÇÑ´Ù. ÇÏÁö¸¸ 12¼¼±â¿¡ Á¦ÀÛµÈ Áö¸®µµ¸¦ º¸¸é ¿À´Ã³¯ÀÇ ³­Çϸ¦ ¿¾³¯¿¡´Â ¿ä¼ö(é¬â©)¶ó ºÒ·¶°í, ¿À´Ã³¯ÀÇ ¿äÇÏ´Â ¼Ò¿ä¼ö¶ó ºÒ·¶´Ù. µû¶ó¼­ »ç±âÀÇ ¿äµ¿Àº ³­ÇÏÀÇ µ¿ÂÊÀ» ÀǹÌÇß¾úÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. 15 Áï, ¿¬ÀÌ ¼³Ä¡Çß´Ù´Â ¿äµ¿±º°ú ¿ä¼­±ºÀº ¿À´Ã³¯ÀÇ ³­ÇÏ Á¿쿡 À§Ä¡Çß°í, »ó°î, ¾î¾ç, ¿ìºÏÆò ±ºµéÀº ¿À´Ã³¯ÀÇ ÇϺϼº¿¡ À§Ä¡ÇßÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù.

Karachin Banner·ÎºÎÅÍ Fu-xin¿¡ À̸£±â±îÁö, È뺮µ¹°ú µ¹·Î ¸¸µç ¹æº®, ÃʼÒ, Å©°í ÀÛÀº ¿ä»õ, ºÀÈ­´ë, Çù°îÀ» °¡·Î¸·´Â µ¹´ã, ¿õµ¢ÀÌ µîÀ¸·Î ±¸¼ºµÈ, ÀÏ·ÃÀÇ ¿ä»õÈ­µÈ ¹æ¾î¼± ÇüÅÂÀÇ À¯ÀûÀÌ Á¸ÀçÇϴµ¥, À̰ÍÀ» º¸°í ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ »çÇÐÀÚµéÀÌ ¡°¿¬ À强¡±ÀÇ ÈçÀûÀ̶ó°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀÌ, º°·Î ³²¾ÆÀÖ´Â À¯Àûµµ ¾ø´Â µ¿°ú ¼­·Î ¡°¿¬ À强¡±ÀÌ °è¼ÓµÇ¾úÀ» °ÍÀ̶ó°í »ó»óÀ» Çϸç À强ÀÇ À§Ä¡¸¦ ¸Ú´ë·Î ±×·Á´í´Ù. ÀÌÁ¦ Di Cosmo (2002: 148-50, 157)°¡ ¿ä¾àÇÑ °í°íÇÐÀû ¹ß±¼ °á°ú¸¦ (±× ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ÇØ¼®À» »©°í) ¼Ò°³ÇÑ´Ù.

¼ÒÀ§ ¡°¿¬ À强¡±À» µû¶ó°¡¸ç, ³ôÀº Áö´ë¿¡ µ¹·Î Áö¾îÁø ¸î °³ÀÇ ¿ä»õ¿Í ¿øÇü °ÅÁÖÁö À¯Àû¿¡¼­ °í°íÇÐÀÚµéÀÌ Çϰ¡Á¡ »óÃþ¹®È­ À¯¹°µéÀ» ¹ß°ßÇß´Ù. ÀÌ ¿ä»õÈ­µÈ ¹æ¾î¼± ÁÖº¯¿¡¼­ ¹ß°ßµÇ´Â À¯¹°µéÀº ¸ðµÎ ÇÑÁ· ¹®È­¿Í´Â °ü·ÃÀÌ ¾ø´Â °ÍµéÀÌ´Ù. °í°íÇÐÀÚµéÀº ±×°÷ °ÅÁÖÀÚ°¡ µ¿È£Á·À̾ú´Ù°í ¹Ï´Â´Ù. ÀûºÀ ºÎ±Ù¿¡¼­ ¹ß±¼µÈ À¯¹°µéµµ ¸ðµÎ Çϰ¡Á¡ »óÃþ°ú ¿À¸£µµ½º ûµ¿¹®È­¿¡ ¼ÓÇÑ´Ù. 16  À̵é ÁÖº¯ Àü Áö¿ªÀÇ °ÅÁÖÀÚµéÀº ¸ðµÎ ÇÑÁ·ÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó À¯¸ñ¹Îµé À̾ú´Ù°í »ý°¢ÇÑ´Ù. ¼ÒÀ§ À强(íþàò)À̶ó´Â Á¸Àç´Â, À¯¸ñ¹Î°ú ³ó¹ÎÀ» ºÐ¸®½ÃŰ·Á°í ¸¸µç °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, »ç¶÷µéÀÇ À̵¿ ÀÚü¸¦ ÅëÁ¦Çϱâ À§ÇØ °­·ÂÇÑ ±º´ë¸¦ ÁֵнÃų ¸ñÀûÀ¸·Î ¸¸µç °ÍÀ̶ó°í ÃßÃøµÈ´Ù. ±× À庮µéÀº ´ëºÎºÐ ºñ(Þª)³ó°æÁö¿ªÀ» ¹æÀ§Çϰí ÀÖ´Ù. À¯¸ñ»ýȰÀ» ÇÏ´Â ¿Ü°èÀεéÀÌ ÀüÅëÀûÀ¸·Î °ÅÁÖÇÏ´ø Áö¿ª ¼Ó¿¡, »õ»ï½º·´°Ô »ì°Ô µÈ ÇÑÁ·À» º¸È£Çϱâ À§ÇØ, ±× À庮µéÀÌ ¸¸µé¾î Á³´Ù´Â Áõ°Å´Â Çϳªµµ ¾ø´Ù. ¿ì¸®´Â ¾ÆÁ÷µµ ±× À庮ÀÇ ¿ªÇÒÀÌ ¹«¾ùÀÎÁö, ¶Ç ¹«¾ùÀ» ½ÇÁ¦·Î º¸È£Çϰí ÀÖ¾ú´ÂÁö ºÐ¸íÈ÷ ¾Ë ¼ö°¡ ¾ø´Ù. ÀÏ·ÃÀÇ ¿ä»õÈ­µÈ ¹æ¾î¼±°ú À¯»çÇÑ ÀÌ À¯ÀûµéÀ» º¸°í (±â¿øÀü 299³â ÀÌÀü¿¡ ÃàÁ¶µÈ) ¡°¿¬ À强¡±À̶ó°í ºÎ¸£´Â ±Ù°Å´Â ¼øÀüÈ÷ »ç±â¿¡ ±â·ÏµÈ ¡°À强¡±À̶õ µÎ ±ÛÀÚ»ÓÀÌ´Ù.

µ¿ÀÌÀüÀÇ ¿¹Àü(çØîî)À» º¸¸é, Áø³ª¶ó ¸»±â¿¡ Àü±¹ÀÌ ¹Ý¶õ¿¡ ÀÇÇØ È¥¶õ¿¡ ºüÁ³À» ¶§(209 BC), Áß±¹ µ¿ºÏºÎÀÇ Á¦, Á¶, ¿¬ ³ª¶ó »ç¶÷µé ¼ö ¸¸ ¸íÀÌ Á¶¼± ¶¥À¸·Î Çdz­À» Çߴµ¥, ¡°»óÅõ¸¦ Ʋ°í È£º¹(û×Ü×)À» ÀÔÀº¡± À§¸¸À̶ó´Â ¿¬³ª¶ó »ç¶÷(206-195 BC)µµ ¿Ô´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. À§¸¸Àº ¼­ÂÊ º¯°æ¿¡¼­ Çdz­¹ÎµéÀ» °üÀåÇÏ´Â ¾÷¹«¸¦ À§ÀÓ ¹Þ°í ÀÖ¾ú´Âµ¥ ¸¶Ä§³»´Â Á¶¼±ÀÇ ¿ÕÀ§¸¦ ÂùÅ»Çß´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. µ¿ÀÌÀüÀÇ ÇÑÀü(ùÛîî)Àº, À§¸¸¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ÂѰܳ­ Á¶¼±¿ÕÀÌ ³²ÂÊÀ¸·Î ³»·Á°¡ »ïÇÑ Áö¿ª¿¡ Á¤Âø ÇØ ½º½º·Î ÇÑ¿Õ(ùÛèÝ)À̶ó ĪÇß´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. 17

»ç±â¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¿¾ ¿¬³ª¶ó´Â 7ÆÐ(öÒø®) Áß °¡Àå ÀÛ°í ¾àÇÑ ³ª¶ó¿´´Âµ¥, ¼Ò¿Õ(á¹èÝ, 311-279 BC) ¶§¿¡ ¿Í¼­ µ¿ºÏ¹æÇâÀ¸·Î ¿µÅ並 Å©°Ô È®Àå Çß´Ù´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×·±µ¥ ¾îÂîµÈ ¼ÀÀÎÁö, ¼ÒÀ§ ¿¬³ª¶óÀÇ ¹«·ÂÀÌ ÃÖ°í¿¡ ´ÞÇß´Ù´Â ¹Ù·Î À̽ñ⿡, ¼Ò¿ÕÀº ¿¬ Á¶Á¤À» ¿¾ ¼öµµ °è¼º(薊àò)ÀÇ ¡°³²¼­¡±ÂÊ¿¡ À§Ä¡ÇÑ [Áï ¿µÅä°¡ È®ÀåµÇ¾ú´Ù´Â µ¿ºÏ¹æÇâ°ú´Â Á¤¹Ý´ë ÂÊÀÎ] ÀÌÇö(ì¯úã) ºÎ±ÙÀÇ ¹«¾ç(ÙëåÕ)À¸·Î ¿Å°å´Ù. ÀÌ·± ±â·ÏµéÀ» º¸¸é ¿Â°® ÀDZ¸½ÉÀÌ ¶°¿À¸£°Ô ¸¶·ÃÀÌ´Ù. ¿¹ÄÁ´ë, (1) »ç±â¿¡¼­ ¸»ÇÏ´Â (ÝÁ)¿¬ÀÇ ¿µÅä°¡ °ú¿¬ ¿À´Ã³¯ÀÇ ÇϺϼº ÀÌ¿Ü Áö¿ªÀ¸·Î È®´ëµÈ ÀûÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú³ª? (2) ¼ÒÀ§ ¿¬ À强À̶õ Á¸Àç°¡ ÇÑÁ· ¿¬³ª¶ó¿Í Á¤¸» ¹«½¼ °ü·ÃÀÌ ÀÖ´Â °ÍÀΰ¡? (3) »ç±â¿¡¼­ ¸»ÇÏ´Â ¿¬ À强À̶ó´Â °ÍÀÌ Áø ½ÃȲÁ¦°¡ ÈÄ¿¡ ÃàÁ¶ÇÑ ¸¸¸®À强°ú ¶È °°Àº Àå¼Ò¿¡ À§Ä¡ÇØ, ½ÃȲÁ¦°¡ À强À» ½±°Ô ÃàÁ¶ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ°Ô ÇØÁØ ±â¹ÝÀ» Á¦°øÇØ ÁØ °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ñ°¡? (4) ÇÑÁ· (ÝÁ)¿¬°ú ÇÔ²² µ¿È£Á·ÀÇ (Ñõ)¿¬ÀÌ Á¸ÀçÇÏÁö ¾È¾ÒÀ»±î? (5) ±â¿øÀü 311³â Áø°³ÀÇ Á¤º¹È°µ¿ ÀÌÀü¿¡ ³­ÇÏ ÁÖº¯ÀÇ ¿ä¼­ Áö¿ªÀ» °ú¿¬ ´©°¡ Á¡°ÅÇϰí ÀÖ¾ú´Â°¡? (6) Áø°³ÀÇ Á¤º¹È°µ¿ ÀÌÈÄ¿¡ ¿À´Ã³¯ÀÇ ¿ä³ç¼º ´ë´ÉÇÏ ÁÖº¯ÀÇ Áö¿ªÀ» ´©°¡ Á¡°Å Çß³ª? (7) ±â¿øÀü 206-195³â ±â°£ Áß¿¡ µîÀåÇÏ´Â À§¸¸À̶ó´Â À̸§ÀÇ ¿¬³ª¶ó »ç¶÷ÀÌ ¾î°¼­ »óÅõ¸¦ Ʋ°í µ¿È£ º¹ÀåÀ» ÇÏ°í ³ªÅ¸³ª´Â°¡? 18

¼±ºñ-µ¿È£Á·°ú ¿¹¸Æ-Åü±¸½ºÁ·

Áß±¹¿¡¼­´Â µÎµå·Á¼­ ¸¸µç Àúź¼Ò ¿¬Ã¶°ú, ÁÖÁ¶µÈ °íź¼Ò öÀÌ ¸ðµÎ ±â¿øÀü 500³â°æºÎÅÍ »ç¿ëµÇ¾ú°í, Áß±ÞÀÇ Åº¼Ò¸¦ ÇÔÀ¯ÇÑ °­Ã¶µµ ±â¿øÀü 300³â°æ ÀÌÈÄ¿¡´Â ÀÏ»óÀûÀ¸·Î »ç¿ëµÇ¾ú´Ù. Áß±¹ÀÇ Ã¶±â¹®È­´Â öÁ¦ ¹«±â, ¸» Àå½Äǰ, ¸» Àç°¥, Â÷ÃàÀÇ ¸¶°³, ±ªÀÌ, º¸½À, ³´ µîÀÇ ÇüÅ·Π³ªÅ¸³ª´Âµ¥, ±â¿øÀü 400³â°æ¿¡ ¿¾ ¿¬³ª¶ó¸¦ ÅëÇØ À̵é ö±â¹®È­°¡ Çѹݵµ¿¡ ÀüÇØÁø °ÍÀ¸·Î º¸ÀδÙ. 19 ¸¸ÁÖÆò¿ø°ú Çѹݵµ¿¡¼­ öÁ¦ µµ±¸¿Í ÇÔ²² ¹ß°ßµÇ´Â À¯¹°µéÀ» º¸¸é (ºñÆÄÇü µ¿°Ë°ú ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î Ä®³¯ÀÌ Ä®ÀÚ·ç¿Í ºÐ¸®µÇ¾î ÁÖÁ¶µÈ) ¼¼Çü µ¿°Ë°ú ½ºÅ°Åä-»çÀ̺£¸®¾È ¾ç½ÄÀÇ Áü½Â ¸ð¾çÀ» ÇÑ Çõ´ë°í¸®°¡ ¹ß°ßµÈ´Ù.

Áß±¹ Á¤»ç(ïáÞÈ)¿¡ ±â·ÏµÇ¾î ÀÖ´Â °íÁ¶¼±°ú ¿¾ ¿¬³ª¶ó »çÀÌÀÇ Ãæµ¹ ±â·ÏÀº, ¸ù°ñ À¯¸ñ¹ÎÀûÀÎ ¼±ºñ-µ¿È£Á·°ú Áߺθ¸ÁÖ-ÇѹݵµÀÇ ¿¹¸Æ-Åü±¸½ºÁ· °£¿¡ ¸Å¿ì Ä£¹ÐÇÑ °ü°è, Áï »çÀ̰¡ ÁÁ´Ù´Â ÀÌ¿ôÀÌ ÈçÈ÷ ±×·¯´Â °Íó·³ ½¯ »õ ¾øÀÌ ½Î¿ì´Â °ü°è°¡ À¯ÁöµÇ¾ú´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ÃßÃøÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ°Ô ÇÑ´Ù. Barnes(1993: 152)´Â, ¿¬³ª¶ó°¡ ºñ·Ï ÁÖ³ª¶ó ¸»±â Àü±¹ 7¿õ(ê©)µé Áß¿¡¼­ °¡Àå ¾àÇÏ¿´Áö¸¸, ¹ß±¼µÈ ¿©·¯ °³ÀÇ Ã¶ Á¦Á¶ À¯ÀûÀ» º¸°í ¾Ë ¼ö ÀÖµíÀÌ, ´ç½Ã °¡Àå °­Çß´ø Áø(òÚ) ³ª¶óº¸´Ùµµ ¿ÀÈ÷·Á ÈξÀ ´õ ¸¹Àº öÁ¦Ç°µéÀ» »ý»êÇß°í, µ¿¾Æ½Ã¾Æ ÃÖÃÊÀÇ Ã¶ °©¿Ê ¶ÇÇÑ ¿¬³ª¶ó À¯Àû¿¡¼­ ¹ß±¼µÇ¾ú´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. ¹Ù·Î ÀÌ ¿¬³ª¶ó°¡ ±â¿øÀü 400³â°æ¿¡ ÇѹݵµÀÇ Ã¶±â½Ã´ë¸¦ ¿©´Âµ¥ °áÁ¤ÀûÀÎ ¿ªÇÒÀ» ÇÏ¿©, Áß±¹º»Åä¿¡ ö±â¹®È­°¡ ½ÃÀÛ µÈÁö 100³âµµ ¾ÈµÇ¾î Çѹݵµ¿¡ öÀÌ ÀüÆÄµÇ¾ú´ø °ÍÀ̶ó°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. 20

±â¿øÀü 2¼¼±â°æ, °íÁ¶¼±Àº ÀüÇÑ(îñùÓ) Á¶Á¤ÀÌ ÇѰ­ À̳²¿¡ À§Ä¡ÇÑ Áø(òã, ÈÄ¿¡ ß²ùÛ) ³ª¶ó ¶¥ÀÇ Á¶±×¸¸ ¼ºÀ¾±¹°¡µé°ú Á¢ÃËÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ» ¹æÇØÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» Á¤µµ·Î Áö¹è¿µ¿ª°ú ¼¼·ÂÀÌ Ä¿ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. 21 ±â¿øÀü 109³â¿¡ °íÁ¶¼±ÀÇ ¿ÕÀº (³­ÇÏ µ¿ÂÊÀÇ) ¿äµ¿À» °ø°ÝÇÏ¿© Çѳª¶óÀÇ °ü·á¸¦ »ìÇØÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´ç½Ã, °íÁ¶¼±ÀÌ Èä³ë¿Í µ¿¸ÍÀ» ¸ÎÀ» ±î ¸Å¿ì °ÆÁ¤À» Çϰí ÀÖ¾ú´ø ÇÑ ¹«Á¦(ùÓÙëð¨, BC 141-87)´Â ±× ÇØ °¡À»¿¡ °íÁ¶¼±À» °ø°ÝÇÏ¿´´Ù. Àϳ⠰¡±î¿î ÀüÅõ ³¡¿¡ °íÁ¶¼±ÀÇ ¿ÕÀº 108³â¿¡ »ìÇØµÇ¾ú°í, ¹«Á¦´Â ³× °³ÀÇ ±ºÀ» ¼³Ä¡ÇÏ¿© ¡°Èä³ëÀÇ ¿ÞÆÈÀ» Àß¶ó¹ö·È´Ù.¡± 22 ±×·ÎºÎÅÍ 30³âÀÌ ¸øµÇ¾î ´ëµ¿°­ À¯¿ª¿¡ ³«¶û±º Çϳª¸¸ ³²°í, ³ª¸ÓÁö´Â ¾ø¾îÁö°Å³ª, ´Ù¸¥ À§Ä¡·Î ¸Ö¸® ¹Ð·Á³µ´Ù. 313³â°æ, ÇÑÁ·µéÀº ¹«Á¦°¡ ¼³Ä¡Çß´ø ³«¶û±º°ú (204-220³â ±â°£ Áß¿¡) °ø¼Õ¾¾°¡ ¼³Ä¡ÇÑ ´ë¹æ±º¿¡¼­ ¸ðµÎ ÃàÃâµÇ¾ú´Ù.

   
¡ã 1. Ebrey (1996: 87)
±â¿øÀü 108³âÀº, µ¿¾Æ½Ã¾Æ ¿ª»ç¿¡¼­ ÇÑÁ·ÀÌ Ã³À½À¸·Î ¿äÇÏ ÇÏ·ù¿Í ÇѹݵµÀÇ ¼­ºÏºÎ ¿¬¾È¿¡ ÁøÃâÇÑ, ¿ª»çÀû ÀüȯÁ¡ÀÌ µÈ´Ù. 316³â¿¡ ¼­Áø(à¤òÌ)ÀÌ ¸ÁÇÑ ÈÄ, ¿äÇÏ À¯¿ª¿¡ °í¸³µÇ¾î ÀÖ´ø ÇÑÁ·µéÀº, ½Ã¼¼ º¯È­¿¡ µû¶ó, ¼±ºñÁ· ȤÀº Åü±¸½º Á·¿¡ ºÙ¾î Çù·ÂÀ» Çß´Ù. ÇÑÁ·¿¡ ÀÇÇÑ ¿äµ¿ÀÇ Áö¹è´Â 352³âÀÌ Áö³­ 668-755³â ±â°£ Áß¿¡ ´ç³ª¶ó¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ÀçÇöµÈ´Ù. ÇÏÁö¸¸, ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ °æ¿ì, ¿äµ¿ ¶¥Àº ¼±ºñ-°Å¶õ°ú ¿¹¸Æ-¿©Áø Åü±¸½ºÁ·ÀÇ °¢ÃàÀå À̾ú´Ù.

µ¿¾Æ½Ã¾Æ ¿ª»ç °­ÀÇ: 1-11 (2005. 3. 5.)
Á¤¸®: °­Çö»ç ¹Ú»ç

¨Ï 2005 by Wontack Hong      
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
http://www.EastAsianHistory.pe.kr
http://www.WontackHong.pe.kr

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1. ¹ÎÁ·»çÇÐ(ÚÅðéÞÈùÊ)Àº ÀηùÇÐÀÇ ÇÑ ºÐÆÄ·Î, ¾ð¾î-¹®È­Àû Áý´ÜÀ¸·Î¼­ÀÇ °¢ ¹ÎÁ·ÀÇ ±â¿ø, ºÐÆ÷, Ư¡, µîÀ» ºÐ¼®Çϸç, ƯÈ÷ °í°íÇÐÀû À¯¹°ÀÇ ºÐ¼®À» ÅëÇÑ ¹®È­¹ßÀü ¿¬±¸¿¡ Ä¡ÁßÇÑ´Ù. ¼¼°è ¾î´À °÷À̳ª ´Ù ¸¶Âù°¡ÁöÀÌÁö¸¸, ÇöÀç µ¿¾Æ½Ã¾ÆÀÇ ¹ÎÁ·»çÇÐÀº ¿¬±¸ÀÚ °¢ °³ÀÎÀÌ Ã³ÇÑ Á¤Ä¡È¯°æ Çö½Ç¿¡ Áö¹èµÇ´Â °æÇâÀÌ Å©±â ¶§¹®¿¡, ƯÁ¤ ¿¬±¸ÀÚÀÇ ¹ÎÁ·»çÇÐÀ» Ãß±¸ÇÏ´Â ¹æ¹ýÀÚü°¡ ¸í¹éÇÏ°Ô ¹¦ÇÑ Á¦¾àÀ» ¹ÞÁö ¾ÊÀ» ¼ö ¾ø´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¡°¹ÎÁ·»çÇС±Àº ¡°¹ÎÁ·ÁÖÀÇ ¿ª»ç°ü¡±ÀÇ ¾àÀÚ°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¸ç, ÇÊÀÚ°¡ µ¿¾Æ½Ã¾Æ ¿ª»ç¸¦ ¹ÎÁ·»çÇÐÀÇ °üÁ¡¿¡¼­ Á¢±ÙÇÏ´Â °Íµµ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó´Â Á¡À» ¹àÇôµÐ´Ù.

2. ÀÌ Áö¿ªÀº ½É¾ç ÁÖº¯°ú ±× ºÏÂÊ Áö¿ªÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ´Ù. Nelson (1993: 108)À» ÂüÁ¶.

3. Nelson(1993: 113-6, 158, 161)À» ÂüÁ¶. Xu Yu-lin(Nelson, 1995: 66, 79)Àº ÇѹݵµÀÇ ºø»ì¹«´Ì Åä±â°¡ ¿äµ¿ÀÇ À½°¢ Åä±â¿Í ¹ÐÁ¢ÇÑ °ü·ÃÀ» ¸Î°í ÀÖ´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. Nelson(1995: 10)¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ÀÌ¿Í À¯»çÇÑ Åä±âµéÀÌ ½Ãº£¸®¾Æ ¿¬¾È°ú Çѹݵµ, ÀϺ» µî µ¿ºÏ¾Æ½Ã¾Æ Àü Áö¿ª¿¡¼­ ¹ß°ßµÇ´Âµ¥, ±× Á¦Á¶-Àå½Ä ±â¹ýÀÌ ¸¸¸®À强 ¾Æ·¡ Áß±¹ º»Åä¿¡¼­ ¹ß±¼µÇ´Â Åä±â¿Í´Â ÀüÇô ´Ù¸£´Ù.

4. ¾Æ½Ã¾Æ¿¡¼­ °íÀε¹Àº Àεµ·ÎºÎÅÍ ¸¸ÁÖ¿¡ °ÉÃÄ ¹ß°ßµÇ´Âµ¥, ¸¸ÁÖÀ¯¿ª-Çѹݵµ Áö¿ª¿¡¼­ 10¸¸°³°¡ ³Ñ´Â ÃÖ°íÀÇ ¹Ðµµ¸¦ º¸ÀδÙ. Nelson(1993: 159, 163)Àº, Çѱ¹¿¡¼­ ¹ß°ßµÈ °íÀε¹ÀÇ ¼ýÀÚ´Â °íÀε¹ÀÇ ¿ø»êÁö°¡ Çѱ¹ÀÏÁöµµ ¸ð¸¥´Ù°í »ý°¢ÇÏ°Ô ÇÏ°í ¶Ç, ¡°¿µ±¹ ¿­µµ¿¡¼­Ã³·³, ¿¹¸ÆÀÇ Áö¹èÃþµéÀº ±×µéÀÇ ¸ÅÀåÁö¸¦ °¡Áö°í ÀڽŵéÀÇ ¿µ¿ªÀ» Ç¥½ÃÇßÀ» °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù¡±°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. ºÏ¹æÇü °íÀε¹Àº ºø»ì¹«´Ì Åä±â ¸»±â¿¡ ÃâÇöÇß´Ù. °Å´ëÇÑ µ¹±âµÕ À§¿¡ ÃÖ°í 300Åæ¿¡ ´ÞÇÏ´Â °ü¼®(ήà´)À» ¿Ã·Á³õ¾Æ, Áö»ó¿¡ ¼®°ü ¸ð¾çÀÇ ¹æÀ» ¸¸µé¾ú´Ù. ³²¹æÇü °íÀε¹Àº ûµ¿±â ÈĹݿ¡ ÃâÇöÇߴµ¥, ¸¶Ä¡ ¹ÙµÏÆÇ ¸ð¾ç ¸î °³ÀÇ µ¹ À§¿¡ °Å´ëÇÑ °ü¼®À» µ¤°í, ÁöÇÏ¿¡ ¼®°üÀ̳ª ¿Ë°üÀ» ¹¯¾ú´Ù. ¸ÅÀåǰÀ¸·Î´Â ¿Á°ü ¸ñ°ÉÀÌ¿Í °î¿Á(ÍØè¬) µîÀÌ ¹ß±¼µÈ´Ù.  Nelson(1995: 16)Àº, ¸¸ÁÖÆò¿ø°ú ¿äµ¿¹ÝµµÀÇ °íÀε¹µéÀÌ ±× ÃàÁ¶¹æ¹ý°ú ¹ß±¼¹°ÀÇ ³»¿ë ¸é¿¡¼­ ÇѹݵµÀÇ °íÀε¹°ú ¹ÐÁ¢ÇÑ ¿¬°üÀ» º¸ÀÎ´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. Xu Yu-lin(Nelson, 1995: 80)Àº ½Å¼®±â½Ã´ëÀÇ ¿äµ¿¹Ýµµ, »êµ¿¹Ýµµ, Çѹݵµ°¡ »óÈ£°£¿¡ ¿µÇâÀ» Áָ鼭 ¹ÐÁ¢ÇÑ °ü°è¸¦ À¯ÁöÇß´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. »êµ¿¹Ýµµ Áö¿ª¿¡¼­ °íÀε¹À» ¸¸µé´ø µ¿ÀÌÁ·µéÀº ÇÑÁ·¿¡ ÀÇÇØ Èí¼ö µ¿È­µÇ¾ú°Å³ª, ¸¸ÁÖÀ¯¿ªÀ¸·Î ¹Ð·Á°¬À» °ÍÀ¸·Î »ý°¢µÈ´Ù.

5. Barnes (1993: 166) ÂüÁ¶.

6. Barnes (1993: 160-1) ÂüÁ¶.

7. Nelson (1993: 137-8) ÂüÁ¶.

8. Pai (2000: 200,203) ÂüÁ¶.

9. Nelson (1993: 147) ÂüÁ¶.

10.  Kim (1986: 121) ÂüÁ¶.

11. ÞÈÑÀ Ïéß²ä¨ÞÌ æØá¯Íëá¦Ê«ð¯ÞÌ ñ²ÙëèÝñýØþñÄ[1027 BC]Üæá¯ÍëåÚÝÁæØ  áäõ÷èØ êóÑõæØ ÍºéöÝÁæØ Ðìî¤à÷èÝãÁ á¯ÍëêÓß²Íë í»àíì¤à¤ á¯Íëñ«ñý í»àíì¤ÔÔ ñ²Íëñ«ñý

ÞÈÑÀ Ïé߲䍸¢ áäÚ°í­á¦Ê«ð¯ø¢ ѹí­íº ñÄöÑô«å¥ ¡¦ ñ²ÙëèÝÛéñÄкëÜ ¡¦Û¾ÙýÑ¹í­ ¡¦ ÜæÑ¹í­åÚðÈàØ ì»ÝÕãíå¥

»ç±â¸¦ º¸¸é, ÁÖ³ª¶ó ¹«¿ÕÀÌ ¼Ò°ø(á¯Íë)¿¡°Ô »ó³ª¶ó ¸¶Áö¸· ¿Õ¿¡ ÀÇÇØ Åõ¿ÁµÈ ±âÀÚ(ѹí­)¸¦ ¼®¹æ ÇØ ÁÖ¶ó°í ¸íÇÑ´Ù. ÞÈÑÀ ÏéÞÌ ñ²ÜâѺð¯ÞÌ ÙëèÝ¡¦ Ù¤á¯Íëà·Ñ¹í­ñýáö

12. Î·í­ Ïéì£ä¨ß² ÌîñìË£ ð¯ø¢ä¨ ü¸ÍëèØ ÞÌì¨ÝÕÜ× ¡¦ ηí­ÓßèØ ¡¦ðÈàØÝÕðÈ ... [ηñê, ?...645 BC]

ÞÈÑÀ ÏéìéÛÝì£ä¨Îú ü§ãÖæêîî ð¯ë»ä¨Îú ÜýæØæ²ÚúÊåñýùÙ¡¦ÔÔÝÁÜ«û× ß¾ÍÛò¸×¡ÔÔ¡¦ÝÁ鄰è¡ü¸Üýæ® ÔÔ綰çÛ貉[Øç]ðÈàØ¡¦ñý××

ý­ùÓßö Ïéø¢ä¨çé ÔÔì¨æêîî çØ çØÐàèªîÁÏ£ÕòÜâËËðÈàØñýò¢å¥
סÞÈ ò¢×âò¤ì£ ÔÔÌÈé¬åÕݤÜâ ðÈàØñýò¢

13. À§·«Àº 280-289³â »çÀÌ¿¡ ÆíÂùµÇ¾ú´Âµ¥, 280-297³â ±â°£ Áß¿¡ ÆíÂùµÈ µ¿ÀÌÀü ³»¿ëÀÇ ¾à 40%°¡ À§·«À» Àοë ÇÑ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ÀÌ ±â·Ïµé¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¿äÇÏ¿¡¼­ ´ëµ¿°­¿¡ À̸£´Â Áö¿ª¿¡ À§Ä¡Çß´ø °íÁ¶¼±ÀÇ ±â¿øÀº Àû¾îµµ ¿¾ ¿¬³ª¶ó¿Í ºñ½ÁÇÒ °ÍÀ¸·Î º¸ÀδÙ.

14 ß²ÏÐò¤ êàßö ÔÔì¨îî ùÛîî êàÕÔèØ à®Ñ¹í­ñýý­ðÈàØý¦ ̸ñ²áñ[BC 403?] æØí»ðîêÓèÝ [323 BC] é°ÔÔÕÔñý ðÈàØý¦æ²í»öàêÓèÝ é°ýéܲæ½ÌªæØì¤ðîñ²ãø ¡¦ æØÒ¬ÌºíâòÚËÒÍôÐìà¤Û°[BC 311-297]¡¦ ÓðסÔÔ ãÁðÈàØèÝÜúØ¡ ¡¦ ÜúÞÝ Ðìí­ñÞØ¡ ì£ä¨æ®Ò´ì»òçú£ÑÃ[BC 209-8] ô¸ù»Õ¯ æØðºðáÚÅáþÍÈ õªõªØÌèÙñÞ ¡¦ ðÈàØæ¨æØÍ£åÚøªâ©

ÞÈÑÀ Ïéð¯ìéÛÝä¨ ýÖÒ¿æêîî ð¯çé䨠 æØêóúçíâòÚËÒ ¡¦ ã©÷òñËÔÔû× ÔÔû×卻ô¶æ®×ì¡¦æØæ²õéíþàò í»ðãåÕò¸åÑøÁ¡¦öÇß¾ÍÛåÛåÕéÓÝÁøÁסà¤×¡ÔÔÏÛì»ËÞû×

15. À±³»Çö (1986: 43-58) ÂüÁ¶.

ÞÈÑÀ ýÖÒ¿æêîî ð¯çéä¨ æØæ²õéíþàò¡¦ò¸åÑøÁ êßá¹éöÐÑסÔÔá¶×âå¥
ÞÈÑÀ Ï鸢䍸¢ ÙÕÒ¸æêîîð¯ì£ä¨ø¢ ã·üÕ ¡¦ õéíþàò ¡¦ ò¸×¡ÔÔ

Á¶¼±°ú ¿¬ÀÇ ±¹°æÀ̶ó´Â ÆÐ¼ö(øªâ©)´Â ³­ÇÏ, ´ë´ÉÇÏ, ¿äÇÏ, ÈÆ°­, ¾Ð·Ï°­, ûõ°­, ´ëµ¿°­ Áß Çϳª·Î ÃßÃøµÈ´Ù. ½ÉÀçÈÆ(2002: 302)Àº Áø½ÃȲÀÇ ÃµÇÏÅëÀÏ ÀÌÈÄÀÇ »ç¶÷µéµµ ´ëºÎºÐ ³­ÇÏ¿Í ´ë´ÉÇÏ °è°îµéÀ» Á¶¼±ÀÇ ¿µÅä·Î °£ÁÖÇß´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. ½ÉÀçÈÆÀº ±â¿øÀü 2¼¼±â¿¡ ÆíÂùµÈ ȸ³²ÀÚ(üçÑõí­)ÀÇ ¡°ÇÑ(ùÓ) ³ª¶óÀÇ µ¿ÂÊ ³¡ÀÎ °¥¼®(Êåà´)»êÀ» Áö³ª Á¶¼±À» Åë°úÇÑ´Ù¡±´Â ±¸ÀýÀ» ÀοëÇϰí, ¶Ç ±â¿øÀü 1¼¼±â¿¡ ÆíÂùµÈ ¿°Ã¶·Ð(ç¤ôÑÖå)ÀÇ ¡°¿¬³ª¶ó´Â °¥¼®»êÀ¸·Î ¸·ÇôÀÖ´Ù¡±¶ó´Â ±¸ÀýÀ» ÀοëÇÑ´Ù. °¥¼®»êÀº ³­ÇÏ ÇÏ·ù µ¿ÂÊ Ã¢·ÁÇö¿¡ À§Ä¡ÇÑ´Ù.

16. °í¸®Çü ¼ÕÀâÀ̰¡ ÀÖ´Â µ¿°Ë, ¸» ȤÀº »õ¸¦ ÁÖÁ¦·Î ÇÏ´Â Àå½Äǰ, (¹æ¿ï)Á¾ Àå½Äǰ, ´ÜÃß, ±Í°ÉÀÌ, Çõ´ë °í¸® µî°ú °°Àº ûµ¿Á¦Ç°µéÀÌ ´ë·® ¹ß±¼µÇ¾ú´Ù´Â »ç½ÇÀº ÀÌ Áö¿ªÀÌ Áß±¹º»Åä ¹®È­±Ç¿¡ ¼ÓÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ÀǹÌÇÑ´Ù.

17. ß²ÏÐò¤ êàßö è¡ü¯àØÝäÔÔì¨îî çØîî ¡¦òçã­ÔõÑà ô¸ù»ÚäòÚ æØðºðáÚÅù­ò¢ðÈàØâ¦Ø¿Ï¢ æØìÑêÛØ» 魋Ì¿ì¨Ü× ÜÖÕÎèÝñý
ùÛîî ¡¦Ðà綰Úã ìýýÖÒ¿ æØìÑêÛØ»ØÌÙ¤ êÓû×Ü× ¡¦çáñÞú¢àãñÞÏ´ËÜà¤Í£  â¥ñéÏÐØÌÙ¤ ¡¦ Öµáúà¤Ü« ¡¦ âÄü½ÍôñÞ ñÞ¡¦ñËìýú­ ËÜùÛò¢ í»ûÜùÛèÝ

18. °û´ë¼ø(1995b: 178)¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, Çϰ¡Á¡ ÇÏÃþ¹®È­(2000-1500 BC)¿¡ ¼ÓÇÏ´Â ¸ÅÀå À¯ÀûÀÌ ºÏ°æÀÇ ·ù¸®Çã(ë¤×ãùÁ) Áö¿ª¿¡¼­, ¼­ÁÖ ÃÊâ±â¿¡ ¼Ò°øÀÇ ¿¬³ª¶ó ¼öµµ°¡ µÇ¾ú´Ù´Â Àå¼Ò¿¡ ÇØ´çÇÏ´Â Ãþ ¾Æ·¡ÀÇ, »ó³ª¶ó º¸´Ù µµ ´õ À̸¥ Ãþ¿¡¼­ ¹ß°ßµÇ¾ú´Ù. ¿¬À̶ó´Â ±ÛÀÚ´Â ´ç½Ã¿¡ ÀÌ¹Ì ½ÅŹ °©°ñ¿¡ »õ°ÜÁ® ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. »ç¸¶Ãµ(c.145-86 BC)Àº ÁÖ ¹«¿Õ(r.1049-43 BC)ÀÌ ¼Ò°øÀ» ºÏ¿¬ÀÇ Áö¹èÀÚ·Î ºÀÇØÁÖ¾ú´Ù°í ±â·ÏÇß´Ù. »ç±â´Â ´ç½Ã¿¡ ³²¿¬ °°Àº Á¸Àçµµ ÀÖ¾úÀ» °ÍÀ̶ó°í ÁÖ¼®À» ´Þ¾Ò´Ù. ±â¿øÈÄ 336-436 ±â°£ Áß, Àü¿¬(337-70), ÈÄ¿¬(384-408), ¼­¿¬(384-94), ³²¿¬(398-410), ºÏ¿¬(409-36) µî ³× °³ÀÇ ¿¬À̶ó´Â À̸§ÀÇ ±¹°¡°¡ ³ªÅ¸³µ¾ú´Ù. ±×·±µ¥, ¿ä¼­¿¡ À§Ä¡ÇÑ ºÏ¿¬ÀÇ Áö¹èÀÚ´Â ³î¶ø°Ôµµ ÇÑÁ·À̾ú°í, »êµ¿¹Ýµµ¿¡ À§Ä¡ÇÑ ³²¿¬À» Æ÷ÇÔÇØ¼­ ³ª¸ÓÁö 3°³ÀÇ ¿¬³ª¶ó Áö¹èÀÚµéÀº ¸ðµÎ ¸ð¿ë ¼±ºñÁ·À̾ú´Ù.

19. Barnes (1993: 150) ÂüÁ¶. ¿©¿µ½Ã(åùçÈãÁ)´Â, ¿¬³ª¶ó¿Í °íÁ¶¼±ÀÇ ÁÖ¹Îµé »çÀÌ¿¡ Ȱ¹ßÇÑ »ó¾÷Àû ±³·ù°¡ ÀÖ¾ú±â ¶§¹®¿¡, ¿¬³ª¶ó¿¡¼­ ÁÖÁ¶ÇÑ È­ÆóµéÀÌ Çѹݵµ¿¡¼­ ¸¹ÀÌ ¹ß°ßµÈ´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. Twitchet and Loewe (1986: 447) ÂüÁ¶.

20. Barnes (2001: 83-4) ÂüÁ¶.  Nelson (1993: 174)Àº ±â¿øÀü 3¼¼±â ȤÀº ±× ÀÌÀü °ÍÀ¸·Î º¸ÀÌ´Â ¼Ò±Ô¸ð ¿ë±¤·Î¿¡¼­ »ý»êµÈ öÁ¦Ç°µéÀÌ ºÏÇѰ­ À¯¿ªÀÇ Ã¶±¤¼® ¸ÅÀåÁö ºÎ±Ù¿¡¼­ ¹ß°ßµÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ¶Ç ³²ÇؾÈÀÇ ¿¾ °¡¾ß À¯ÀûÁö¿¡¼­´Â ±â¿øÀü 1-2 ¼¼±âÀÇ °ÍÀ¸·Î º¸ÀÌ´Â ¿ø½ÃÀû ÇüÅÂÀÇ Á¦Ã¶ °¡¸¶µéÀÌ ¹ß°ßµÇ¾ú´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù.

21. À̱â¹é (1984: 17) ÂüÁ¶.

22. ùÓßö Ïéë» Ùëð¨Ñº ð¯ë» êªÜæì£Ò´¡¦ðÈàØèÝÍô߯סÔÔÔ´êÏ Ò¬Ù´ô¸ù»ÞÝñªÌªðÈàØ ë»êÅ¡¦õÕ ¡¦ÌºÒæàÏíâÏÚ¡¦íâëëÙ´ñªìÑ̪ðÈ àØ ß²Ò´¡¦ù¾..ðÈàØóÖÐìèÝéÓËâú¢ ì¤Ðìò¢êÓÑâÕÈìúÔêúÜÔ³òØÛãÏÛ

ùÓßö ÏéöÒä¨ß² êßúçîî ð¯ÞÌ ä¨ß² üøÙëüÕð¨ÚÀñéÏÐ÷óÖÌ ÙíäÌ Ò»ñýãÁ...ÝÁåÁýÕҿ˽ÍàÞ÷䍨¿ñý ñë öÇçéáÕÏÐ ÑÃÞýÛ°ì¤÷¬ÐìÝþé® ñýò¢ ÔÔÛéðÈàØ ÑÃúÜ菟ÑâÕÈì¤Ó¨ ýÕÒ¿ñýñ§Þ¢


The Ancient Yan
and the Ye-maek Chosun

the xianbei-donghu and the Ye-maek Tungus


Wontack Hong
Professor, Seoul University

The Proto-Xianbei-Tungus in Manchuria

The proto-Turko-Mongol populations, who had first settled around Transbaikalia across the Great Altai, dispersed further across the Greater Xing¡¯an Range to become the proto-Xianbei-Tungus in Manchuria, and an offshoot of them tracked a warmer and moister climate down through the Korean peninsula to become the rice-cultivating farmers. The Korean peninsula is an extension of central Manchuria towards the sea, having a long strip of plains in the west flanked by high mountains in the east.

The greater Manchurian ethnohistorical sphere of the Xianbei-Tungus that includes the Korean peninsula has formed one of the three major sub-regions of East Asia, sharing intimate histories with strong cultural affinity.1 The proto-Altaic speech community of Xianbei-Tungus had shared the Neolithic Hong-shan culture, and also the tradition of dolmens, broad-and-narrow-bladed bronze daggers, and Chulmum-Mumun pottery. The Korean peninsula has been closely connected with Manchuria not only as an ethnohistorical entity but also as a physical reality.
The Liao-xi steppe in western Manchuria was the home of Dong-hu, including the Xianbei and their descendent Qidan tribes, who were the steppe wolves leading a life rather like that of Mongolic nomads. The forest region in eastern Manchuria, extending from the Lesser Xing¡¯an Ranges down to the Changbai Mountain area, was the home of the Mohe-Ruzhen Tungus (who were the descendants of Sushen-Yilou and ancestors of the core Manchu tribes) who were the forest tigers leading a life of rather extensive hunting and gathering supplemented by patchy farming.

The central Manchurian plain around the upper Song-hua and Liao River basins (the Dong-bei Plain) as well as the mountainous areas around Hun (Dong-jia), Yalu and Tae-dong rivers were the home of the Ye-maek Tungus, including the people of Old Chosun, Puyeo, and Koguryeo, whose life involved millet farming and livestock breeding, with hunting and river fishing serving as additional means of subsistence. 2 The southern Korean peninsula was the home of rice-cultivating Ye-maek cousins who had established ancient political entities that were called collectively Chin, Han or Three Hans in the Chinese dynastic chronicles. In the ethnohistorical context, the ancient home of the Ye-maek Tungus, i.e., the central Manchurian basin and the Korean peninsula, may be defined as the ¡°Korea proper.¡±

Incised-Plain Pottery, Bronze Daggers and Dolmen

The Neolithic period of Korea proper, characterized by the comb-patterned Chul-mun pottery, began c. 8000 BC. According to Barnes (1993: 109), ¡°the Fuhe, Hong-shan and Xin-le shared a textured-pottery tradition more similar to the incised Chul-mun of the Korean peninsula than the Neolithic cultures of the China Mainland.¡± A new pottery style represented by the plain Mumun pottery began to appear in Korea proper c. 2000 BC, designating the late Neolithic. Pottery from many sites of Liao-ning and Heilong-jiang is similar to the plain Mumun pottery from other Manchurian sites and the Korean peninsula. 3

Similarities between the Manchurian basin and the Korean peninsula, observed in the Neolithic sites in the form of comb-patterned Chul-mun pottery, continue in the Bronze Age sites in the form of plain Mumun pottery, dolmen, and bronze daggers. Dolmen, the status symbol of Ye-maek ruling elites, characterizes the Dong-yi culture of the Manchurian basin and the Korean peninsula.4 The dolmen sites never yield iron, so dolmen-building is thought to have been discontinued by 300 BC (see Barnes, 1993, p. 166).

The Bronze Age began c. 1500 BC in the Manchurian basin and c. 1000 BC in the Korean peninsula (see Barnes, 1993: 160-1). According to Barnes (1993: 162), ¡°the peninsular Bronze Age per se is defined by the intrusion of the [broad-bladed] Liao-ning dagger from the Manchurian Basin.¡± Unlike the Han Chinese bronze daggers, the blade of Liao-ning daggers was cast separately from the hilt. According to Nelson (1993: 133), ¡°Liao-ning dagger is found abundantly in the Liao-dong peninsula and around Bohai Bay, as well as in Korea, but it is not found in China south of the Great Wall.¡± Molds for bronze daggers, arrowheads, (fine-lined) mirrors, fishhooks, and axes, and other bronze artifacts such as bells, (animal-shaped) belt buckles, buttons, horse trappings, and chariot ornaments have appeared in the plain Mumun pottery sites throughout the peninsula.5 The origins of the bronze dagger and the fine-lined mirror that are abundantly found in the Korean peninsula are traced to the Upper Xiajia-dian culture of 1100-300 BC (see Pai, 2000, pp. 200, 203).

Rice discovered in the western peninsula dates from 2400 and 2100 BC (see Nelson, 1993, p. 147). A group of southern Chinese who were cultivating rice perhaps crossed the Yellow Sea and found a similar ecological niche in the southern peninsula. By taking advantage of northeasterly winds, ships could sail in summer directly from the mouth of Yang-zi River toward the southwestern tip of the Korean peninsula.6

Yan and the so-called Yan long wall

According to the Shi-ji, King Wu (r. 1049-43 BC) of Western Zhou enfeoffed his half-brother, Shao-gong, as the ruler of (Northern) Yan, and also enfeoffed Kija (Ji-zi, a relative of the last king of Shang) as the ruler of Chosun, an eastern neighbor of Yan. With a few strokes, Si-ma Qian installed two ancient Han Chinese royal scions as founders of the states located in the traditional domain of both the Dong-hu and Ye-maek Tungus. The Shi-ji states that, during the reign of King Cheng (1042-1006 BC), the Lord of Zhou (regent. 1042-36 BC) ruled the east of Shaan, and the Duke of Shao the west of Shaan. Shi-ji notes that there must have been another Yan (called Southern Yan) that did not belong to the territory enfeoffed to Shao-gong.7
Chosun appears in the records on the ruler of Qi (685-43 BC) in the Guan-zi that was compiled during the Warring States Period.8 Puyeo and Chosun both appear in the Shi-ji records on (Old) Yan in the fourth century BC. The History of Later Han records that the area of Ye, Ok-jeo and Koguryeo originally belonged to the territory of Chosun.9

The Zhou court fell into complete decay and the Warring States period began in 403 BC. According to the Wei-Lüe (quoted in the Three Han section of Dongyi-zhuan), when the Zhou became weak, the ruler of Yan assumed the title of king [in 323 BC]; then the ¡°Lord of Chosun, a scion of Ji-zi (Kija)¡± also declared himself king; and these two states were on the brink of fighting each other. The armed conflicts between Chosun and Yan at last occurred c. 300 BC: the Yan dispatched a general named Qin Kai (who was active during 311-297 BC) to invade Chosun. The Wei-Lüe was compiled between 280 and 289 AD by Yu Huan, and about 40 percent of Dongyi-zhuan consists of quotations from the Wei-Lüe.

According to the Xiong-nu section of Shi-ji, the general named Qin Kai had been taken as hostage to the Dong-hu, enjoyed the fullest confidence of them, but after returning to Yan, staged a surprise attact on the Dong-hu in 311 BC, just 90 years prior to Yan¡¯s downfall in 222 BC, making the Dong-hu to retreat about a thousand li. The Shi-ji then notes that the Yan had established five provinces, including the Liao-xi and Liao-dong provinces, and constructed a Long Wall from Zao-yang to Xiang-ping.10 

According to the Shi-ji, the walls built by the Yan and rebuilt by the Qin reached Laio-dong. As shown in the twelfth century map of Di Li Tu, however, the present-day Luan River was called the Liao River in old days, and the present-day Liao River was called the Lesser Liao River. Hence the ¡°Liao-dong¡± in the Shi-ji must have implied the east of Luan River.11 That is, the Liao-xi and Liao-dong provinces established by the Yan must have been located around the modern-day Luan River, while the provinces of Shang-gu, Yu-yang, and Youbei-ping were located in northern Hebei.

Remains of a line of fortifications (built with stamped earth and stone), comprising of lookout posts, ramparts, ditches, small and large forts, beacon towers, and stone walls blocking mountain passes, were found running approximately from the Karachin Banner in the west to the Fu-xin district in the east. This line of fortifications is alleged to be the ¡°Long Wall¡± constructed by the Yan. Many people imagine that the walls extend further to the west and east. The following are the archeological findings reported by Di Cosmo (2002: 148-50, 157), minus his own interpretation of these findings.

Several citadels and round habitations built in stone on high terrain were discovered along the line of the walls from where archeologists have recovered artifacts attributed to the Upper Xiajia-dian culture (2000-1500 BC). Both outside and inside this line of fortifications, the only cultural remains are ¡°non-Chinese.¡±  The archeologists believe that the original dwellers were Dong-hu. Archeological excavations in the proximity of the section of the wall near Chi-feng also reveal the presence of the Upper Xiajia-dian and the Ordos bronze cultures.12 It is obvious that the whole area was inhabited exclusively by non-Chinese, mostly pastoral people.
 The wall was not built to separate nomad and farmer, but to establish a strong military presence to control the movement of people. The wall was mostly defending the non-agricultural territory. There is no evidence to support that the wall was protecting the Han Chinese settlements in areas traditionally inhabited by alien peoples engaged mainly in pastoral activities. We still do not know the precise function of the wall, and what it was actually defending.

The only basis of attributing this line of fortifications running from Karachin Banner to the Fu-xin to the work of the Yan (dating to no later than 299 BC) rests solely on the ¡°Long Wall¡± mentioned in the Shi-zhi.

The Ye section of Dongyi-zhuan states that, at the end of the Qin dynasty when the empire was plunged in chaos by rebellion (in 209 BC), tens of thousands of people started to flee from northeastern China (Qi, Zhao and Yan) to Chosun, and a Yan person named Wei-Man came (c. 206-195 BC) ¡°with a topknot wearing barbarian clothes.¡± Wei-Man was entrusted with the custody of refugees in the western frontier district, but he eventually usurped the throne of Chosun. The Han section of Dongyi-zhuan records that the king of Chosun who was thrown out by Wei-Man fled south to the [Three] Han (old Chin) area and called himself the King of Han.13

According to the Shi-ji, the ancient Yan was the smallest and the weakest among the seven warring states, and it was during the reign of King Zhao (á¹ 311-279 BC) that the Yan had supposedly expanded its territory greatly toward northeast. And yet King Zhao somehow decided, supposedly at the peak of Yan¡¯s military might, to remove his court to Wuyang ÙëåÕ near Yixian ì¯úã that was located in southwest of the old capital Jicheng 薊àò. A host of questions may arise in one¡¯s mind, such as: (1) Had the (Northern) Yan¡¯s territory ever extended beyond the present-day Hebei province?; (2) Did the so-called ¡°Yan Long Wall¡± have anything to do with the Han Chainese Yan?;  (3) Wasn¡¯t the ¡°Long Wall¡± mentioned in the Shi-ji located at the exactly identical places where Qin Shi-huang-di later constructed the ¡°Great Wall,¡± serving as its ready-made base?; (4) Wasn¡¯t there a Dong-hu (Southern) Yan domain together with the Han Chinese (Northern) Yan?; (5) Who had been occupying the Liao-xi area around the Luan River prior to the Qin Kai¡¯s exploits in 311 BC?; (6) Who did occupy the the Daling-he basin of the modern-day Liao-ning province after the Qin Kai¡¯s exploits?; and (7) How could a ¡°Yan¡± person named Wei-Man appear sometime in 206-195 BC wearing Dong-hu clothes complete with a topknot? 14 

The Xianbei-Donghu and the Ye-maek Tungus

On the mainland China, both ¡°low-carbon¡± wrought iron and ¡°high-carbon¡± cast iron were present from 500 BC onwards, and ¡°medium-carbon¡± steel was common after 300 BC. It is believed that the iron culture of China, in the form of iron weapons, horse trappings, bits, axle caps, hoes, plowshares, and sickles, was transmitted to Korea through Old Yan c. 400 BC.15 Artifacts found together with iron implements in Korea proper include the finely wrought bronze daggers (slender stabbing swords, the blade still being cast separately from the hilt) and the Scytho-Siberian style animal-shaped belt buckles.

The conflicts between Old Chosun and Old Yan that were formally recorded in the Chinese dynastic chronicles suggest a fairly intimate relationship (in the form of incessant warfare, as usual between any good neighbors) having been maintained between the Mongolic Xianbei and the Tungusic Ye-maek people of central Manchuria and Korean peninsula. According to Barnes (1993: 152), the Yan kingdom was the weakest of the seven major Late Zhou feudal states, and yet produced a greater abundance of iron artifacts than Qin, the strongest state, as manifested by the several iron foundries excavated: ¡°The earliest-known iron armor is also from Yan, and this state has played a major role in initiating the Korean iron Age around 400 BC –only a century after iron production became a viable industry on the Mainland itself.¡± 16
Old Chosun had so grown in strength and domain as to interrupt, in the second century BC, the contact between the Former Han dynasty and the petty walled town states of Chin (the later period Three-Han) located south of the Han River in the Korean peninsula (see Lee, 1984, p. 17). In early 109 BC, the King of Chosun invaded Liao-dong [located in east of the Luan River] and killed a Han Chinese officer. Being seriously concerned about the possible alliance with the Xiong-nu, Han Wu-di (141-87 BC) launched an attack on Chosun in autumn. The King of Chosun was killed in summer of 108 BC, and Wu-di established four commanderies, thus ¡°severing the left arm of the Xiong-nu.¡±17 Within three decades, however, only the Le-lang commdandery in the Tae-dong River basin remained (until about 313 AD, together with the Dai-fang Commandery that was established by the Gong-sun rulers some time between 204 and 220).

BC 108 represents the historical date of the Han Chinese debouchment into the lower basin of the Liao River and the northwestern coast of the Korean peninsula for the first time in East Asian history. After the fall of the Western Jin in 316 AD, the Han Chinese settlers who became isolated in the Liao River basin blended alternately with the Xianbei and the Tungus as advantage dictated. The formal Han Chinese rule of the Liao-dong area was repeated 352 years later during 668-755 under the Tang dynasty. Most of the time, however, the Liao-dong had been a land contested among the Xianbei-Qidan and Yemaek-Ruzhen Tungus peoples.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[°¢ÁÖ]

1 Ethnohistory is a branch of anthropology that analyzes the origin, distribution, and distinguishing characteristics of the races (pertaining to the speech or culture groups), especially in regard to the development of cultures, through the analysis of archeological findings. Ethnohistory tends to respond to the current political environment in East Asia as elsewhere, imposing obvious and subtle constraints on the ways ethnohistory is pursued. 

2 Definite evidence of millet (dated c. 5000 BC) is found at Xin-le sites (including the region around Shenyang and sites to the north) of Liao-dong.. See Nelson (1993: 108).

3 See Nelson (1993: 113-6, 158, 161). Xu Yu-lin (Nelson, 1995: 66, 79) sees the Chul-mun pottery of the Korean peninsula as closely related to the incised jars of Liao-dong. According to Nelson (1995: 10), closely related pottery is found throughout northeastern
Asia, including coastal Siberia, Korea, and Japan: ¡°It differs in construction and decorative techniques from pottery further south in China.¡±

4 In Asia, dolmen is found from India to Manchuria, but the highest density (exceeding 100,000 units) is found in Korea proper.
According to Nelson, the number of dolmen in Korea suggests their indigenous origin as well as the possibility that the Ye-maek ruling elites tried ¡°to mark their territory by means of their burial places, as occurred in the British Isles.¡± See Nelson (1993: 159, 163).
The northern-type dolmen, emerged in the late Chul-mun period, has huge slabs and capstone (weighing up to 300 tons), forming a cist-like chamber above ground, while the southern-type dolmen, emerged in the late Bronze Age, has a large capstone resting on several smaller stones at ground level with the burial in a stone cist or jar coffin in the ground underneath. Necklaces of tubular beads as well as comma-shaped beads appear in burials. According to Nelson (1995: 16), dolmens in the Manchurian plain and Liao-dong peninsula reveal ¡°close connections with those in the Korean peninsula in contents as well as construction.¡±
Xu Yu-lin (Nelson, 1995: 80) contends that ¡°the Liao-dong, Shan-dong, and Korean peninsulas have influences and close relationships among them in the Neolithic.¡±  The Dong-yi, who built dolmens around the Shan-dong peninsular region, were either absorbed or pushed into the Manchurian basin by the Han Chinese.

5 See Nelson (1993: 137-8).

6 See Kim (1986: 121).

7 ÞÈÑÀ Ïéß²ä¨ÞÌ æØá¯Íëá¦Ê«ð¯ ÞÌ ñ²ÙëèÝñýØþñÄ Üæá¯ÍëåÚÝÁæØ  áäõ÷èØ êóÑõæØ ÍºéöÝÁæØ Ðìî¤à÷èÝãÁ á¯ÍëêÓß²Íë í»àíì¤à¤ á¯Íëñ«ñý í»àíì¤ÔÔ ñ²Íëñ«ñý àííº ËÏÐÑûðÒÜàíúããÀ奡¦
üøèÝì£ä¨öÒÒ´ æØÌ¸òÚó¦Øþë»ÏС¦æØèÝØÌÞÕËÜסÔÔ¡¦òÚÚûסÔÔ ¡¦÷¼ÞÈÍëèØ¡¦ æØÚÞØÁ貉 Ò®ðÂðºòË ÐøÏ©Ë®ÏÐñýùÙ õÌêÓå°á³

ÞÈÑÀ Ïé߲䍸¢ áäÚ°í­á¦Ê«ð¯ø¢ ѹí­íº ñÄöÑô«å¥¡¦ñ²ÙëèÝÛéñÄкëÜ¡¦Û¾ÙýÑ¹í­¡¦ÜæÑ¹í­åÚðÈàØ ì»ÝÕãíå¥
ÞÈÑÀ ÏéÞÌ ñ²ÜâѺ ð¯ÞÌ ÙëèÝ¡¦ Ù¤á¯Íëà·Ñ¹í­ñýáö

8 Î·í­ Ïéì£ä¨ß² ÌîñìË£ ð¯ø¢ä¨ ü¸ÍëèØ ÞÌì¨ÝÕÜס¦Î·í­ÓßèØ¡¦ðÈàØÝÕðÈ...[ηñê,?...645 BC]

9 ÞÈÑÀ ÏéìéÛÝì£ä¨Îú ü§ãÖæêîî ð¯ë»ä¨Îú ÜýæØæ²ÚúÊåñýùÙ¡¦ÔÔÝÁÜ«û× ß¾ÍÛò¸×¡ÔÔ¡¦ÝÁ鄰è¡ü¸Üýæ® ÔÔ綰çÛ貉[Øç]ðÈàØ¡¦ñý××

ý­ùÓßöÏéø¢ä¨çé ÔÔì¨æêîî çØ çØÐàèªîÁÏ£ÕòÜâËËðÈàØñýò¢å¥

סÞÈ ò¢×âò¤ì£ ÔÔÌÈé¬åÕݤÜâ ðÈàØñýò¢

10 ß²ÏÐò¤ êàßö ÔÔì¨îî ùÛîî êàÕÔèØ à®Ñ¹í­ñýý­ðÈàØý¦ ̸ñ²áñ æØí»ðîêÓèÝ [323 BC] é°ÔÔÕÔñý ðÈàØý¦æ²í»öàêÓèÝ é°ýéܲæ½ÌªæØì¤ðîñ²ãø¡¦æØÒ¬ÌºíâòÚËÒÍôÐìà¤Û°¡¦ ÓðסÔÔ ãÁðÈàØèÝÜúئÜúÞÝ Ðìí­ñÞØ¡ ì£ä¨æ®Ò´ì»òçú£ÑÃ[BC 209-8] ô¸ù»Õ¯ æØðºðáÚÅáþÍÈ õªõªØÌèÙñÞ¡¦ðÈàØæ¨æØÍ£åÚøªâ©

The Pei River was recorded as the border between Yan and Chosun. Luan, Daling, Laio, Hun, Yalu, Cheong-cheon, and Tae-dong Rivers have been proposed by various scholars as plausible candidates for the Pei River. Shim (2002: 302) notes that ¡°post-Qin people still considered the area in the Luan and Daling River valleys as Chosun.¡± Shim quotes Huai-nan-zi, which was written in the second century BC: ¡°At the eastern end [of Han], beyond Jie-shi mountain, [we] pass through Chosun, a state of benevolent and great people.¡± Shim also quotes Yan-ti-lun, complied in the first century BC: ¡°the state of Yan is said to have been blocked by Jie-shi Mountain.¡± The Jie-shi Mountain is located in Chang-li prefecture to the east of the lower Luan River.

ÞÈÑÀ Ïéð¯ìéÛÝä¨ ýÖÒ¿æêîî ð¯çé䨠 æØêóúçíâòÚËÒ êÓòõåÚ û× û×ä¤ãáñý Ïýì»ã©÷òñËÔÔû× ÔÔû× 卻ô¶æ®×ì¡¦æØæ²õéíþàò í» ðãåÕò¸åÑøÁ¡¦öÇß¾ÍÛåÛåÕéÓÝÁøÁ סà¤×¡ÔÔÏÛì»ËÞû×

11 See also Yoon (1986: 43-58).

ÞÈÑÀ ýÖÒ¿æêîî ð¯çéä¨ æØæ²õéíþàò¡¦ò¸åÑøÁ êßá¹éöÐÑסÔÔá¶×âå¥
ÞÈÑÀ Ï鸢䍸¢ ÙÕÒ¸æêîîð¯ì£ä¨ø¢ ã·üÕ ¡¦ õéíþàò ¡¦ ò¸×¡ÔÔ

12 The excavation of a large number of bronze objects, such as knives with ringed handles, horse- and bird-motif ornaments, bell ornaments, buttons, earrings, and belt hooks places this area in a cultural context that is fully outside the Central Plain sphere.

13 ß²ÏÐò¤ êàßö è¡ü¯àØÝäÔÔì¨îî çØîî ¡¦òçã­ÔõÑà ô¸ù»ÚäòÚ æØðºðáÚÅù­ò¢ðÈàØâ¦Ø¿Ï¢ æØìÑêÛØ» 魋Ì¿ì¨Ü× ÜÖÕÎèÝñý
ùÛîî ¡¦Ðà綰Úã ìýýÖÒ¿ æØìÑêÛØ»ØÌÙ¤ êÓû×Ü× ¡¦çáñÞú¢àãñÞÏ´ËÜà¤Í£  â¥ñéÏÐØÌÙ¤ ¡¦ Öµáúà¤Ü« ¡¦ âÄü½ÍôñÞ ñÞ¡¦ñËìýú­ ËÜùÛò¢ í»ûÜùÛèÝ

 

14 According to Guo (1995b: 178), burials of Lower Xiajia-dian culture were found at Liuli-he in Beijing at levels earlier than the Shang dynasty, beneath the level of the Early Western Zhou in what became the capital of the Shao-gong¡¯s Yan State. The character for Yan had already existed in inscriptions on oracle bones. Sima Qian (c. 145-86 BC) wrote that King Wu enfeoffed Shao-gong as the ruler of Northern Yan. Shi-ji gives a note saying that there must be some other Yan, such as the Southern Yan. During a hundred year period of 336-436, there appeared four Yan states, namely, the Former Yan (337-70), the Later Yan (384-408), the Western Yan (384-94), the Southern Yan (398-410), and the Northern Yan (409-36). Surprisingly, the rulers of the Norther Yan, that was located in the Liao-xi area, were Han Chinese, while the rulers of all other Yan states including the Southern Yan that was located in the Shan-dong peninsula, were all the Murong Xianbei.

15 See Barnes (1993: 150).
Yu Ying-shih (Twitchet and Loewe, 1986: 447) states: ¡°active commercial contacts were taking some of the inhabitants of Yan to Korea, where they left large quantities of coin cast in Yan¡¯s mints.¡±

16 See Barnes (2001: 83-4). Nelson (1993: 174) notes that: ¡°Iron artifacts were produced in small furnaces which have been found along the North Han River, dating to the third century BC or earlier. These sites are all near sources of iron.¡± From the old Kaya sites on the southern Korean coast, primitive iron-working furnaces have been found and dated to 1st and 2nd centuries BC.

17 ùÓßö Ïéë» Ùëð¨Ñº ð¯ë» êªÜæì£Ò´¡¦ðÈàØèÝÍô߯סÔÔÔ´êÏ Ò¬Ù´ô¸ù»ÞÝñªÌªðÈàØ ë»êÅ¡¦õÕ ¡¦ÌºÒæàÏíâÏÚ¡¦íâëëÙ´ñªìÑ̪ðÈ àØ ß²Ò´¡¦ù¾..ðÈàØóÖÐìèÝéÓËâú¢ ì¤Ðìò¢êÓÑâÕÈìúÔêúÜÔ³òØÛãÏÛ

ùÓßö ÏéöÒä¨ß² êßúçîî ð¯ÞÌ ä¨ß² üøÙëüÕð¨ÚÀñéÏÐ÷óÖÌ ÙíäÌ Ò»ñýãÁ...ÝÁåÁýÕҿ˽ÍàÞ÷䍨¿ñý ñë öÇçéáÕÏÐ ÑÃÞýÛ°ì¤÷¬ÐìÝþé® ñýò¢ ÔÔÛéðÈàØ ÑÃúÜ菟ÑâÕÈì¤Ó¨ ýÕÒ¿ñýñ§Þ¢

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