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Yangshao Culture and the
Tibet-Chinese Speech Community of Hua-Xia-People
Mainland China below the Great
Wall
Wontack Hong
Professor, Seoul
University
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The lower Yellow River basin is producing wheat and millet
on the fertile loess, and is separated from Mongolia by the Damaqun Mountains.
Following the Yellow River to the west of Zheng-zhou, a long mouse-hole shaped
corridor surrounded by high mountains begins to unfold. Passing Luo-yang and
also the point at which the Yellow River turns sharply northward (to make a
horseshoe-bend through the Ordos steppe), there appears the Wei River valley and
Chang¡¯an (modern Xi¡¯an). This safe retreat blessed with natural barriers for
defense had accommodated the capitals of Western Zhou, Qin, Former Han and Tang
dynasties. Luo-yang in the east became the capital when the Chinese courts were
less nervous about the danger of barbarian invasion.1
The arid Gansu corridor (going through Lan-zhou and Dun-huang behind the Great Wall) towards Central Asia was China¡¯s northwestern extension, linking the dry Turkestan steppe, Tibet plateau and West Asia. The Yang-zi River basin (south of the Huai River) marks the beginning of the double-cropping wet rice land where the nomad cavalry unfamiliar with naval warfare in waterways got stuck in the mud.
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The Yang-shao culture of painted pottery (with geometric designs) emerged in the Gan-su, Shaan-xi and northwest He-nan provinces along the Wei-Yellow River basins at about 5000 BC and lasted about 2000 years. The Yang-shao culture could have come through the Gan-su corridor, spreading from West Asia across the steppes and mountains of Central Asia. The proto-Tibet-Chinese language that seems to have dominated the Yang-shao complex eventually came to dominate other branches of the linguistic family all over China proper. The Mandarin dialect, in spite of its structural Altaicization, retains the genetic connection with the proto- Tibet-Chinese language.
There followed the Long-shan culture of thin lustrous black pottery (formed on the potter¡¯s wheel) at the lower reaches of the Yellow River in the east c. 3000-2200 BC. The Neolithic Chinese stored their grain in pottery, hunted with bows, raised pigs and dogs, used hemp fabrics, and produced silk.
Neolithic China eventually bloomed into the Bronze Age
(2200-500 BC) of Xia (with its capital near Luo-yang, c. 2200-1766 BC), Shang
(with its capital at Zheng-zhou, c.1766-1122 BC) and Zhou (with its early
capital at Xi¡¯an, c.1122 or 1027-256 BC), making bronze from copper and tin,
building royal palaces with stamped earth (using wooden frames) as hard as
cement, performing rites and ceremonies, and fighting with composite bows,
bronze-tipped spears and halberds, and bronze helmets. Early bronze-age sites
are found in Henan province around the Yellow River. The Shang bronze ritual
vessels represent one of the greatest human achievements in artistic
craftsmanship. Horse chariot was used in West Asia from c. 1500 BC and its
concept came across Central Asia to be used in Shang after c. 1200 BC. The use
of bronze appears earlier in West Asia, as does the subsequent use of iron.
2
In the
Yang-zi River basin, rice was cultivated as early as 5000 BC, and dogs and pigs
were also raised, water buffalo becoming important after 3000 BC. Rice is a
plant of Southeast Asian origin. The Chinese originating from southern China
(including the Miao Man) are genetically similar to the southern Mongoloid, the
speakers of Austric languages.
3
The small Zhou tribe had
interacted with nomads on the north, and then finally settled in the Wei River
valley, becoming vassals of the Shang.4 Guo (1995:
178) traces the origin of the Shang culture in the Central Plain to the Lower
Xia-jia-dian and Yan cultures. The Zhou tribe became strong enough to conquer
Shang in 1122 (1027?) BC.5
The horseriding technology of
saddles and bits was developed around 900 BC. After 800 BC, the nomadic people
who were migrating with their grazing animals across the Eurasian steppes began
to terrorize their sedentary neighbors. The mounted nomads shooting arrows on
horseback enter the Chinese historical record in the fourth century BC under the
generic name Hu. The warring states along the northern frontier had to learn,
for survival, the arts of riding and archery from the newly emerging nomad
warriors, acquiring horses for cavalry warfare, using saddles and, later,
stirrups, and wearing belt-buckles and trousers strapped in at the ankle. Yan
and Zhao built long defensive walls in the southern Mongolian plateau between
311 and 279 BC.6
The Shi-ji records that the Yan rulers were related by
blood to the Zhou kings. Barnes (1993: 135-6), however, contends that the
material culture of the local populace was derived from the preceding
Hongshan-Xiajiadian cultures, and that Yan was so isolated from the center of
Zhou politics that it developed its own regional culture and political
interests. The Shi-ji records that a Yan by the name of [Wei] Man became the
king of Chosun sometime during 209-195 BC. The Ye section of Dongyi-zhuan states
that Wei-Man came ¡°with a topknot wearing barbarian clothes.¡± The Han section
states that this Yan person did wear Xiong-nu or Xianbei clothes, suggesting the
Mongolic Xianbei nature of the Yan.7
The Iron Age on the mainland China had begun sometime between 600-500 BC. During the Warring States period, iron tools and knives were cast in iron moulds. The advent of iron tools and weapons implied greater agricultural production and larger and better-armed infantry as well, culminating in the unification of the Warring States by Qin Shi-huang-di (r. 247-210 BC). Conscripted peasant-soldiers were armed with the newly introduced crossbows.
Qin had
begun as the westernmost of the Zhou feudal states. It was situated on the Wei
River basin in the area of today¡¯s Shaan-xi province where the Zhou had earlier
risen to power. It had been assigned the task of raising horses for the imperial
house and defending the dynasty against the marauding nomadic tribes.8
The Zhou and the Qin dynasties could derive military vigor from their contacts with the nomads and from intermarriage.
Yan was
conquered by Qin in 222 BC. In 213 BC, Shi-huang-di was able to expel the
Xiong-nu from the Ordos steppe to their Transbaikalia hinterland, but the Qin
army was not able to cross the Yellow River. The Xiong-nu reoccupied it after
the fall of Qin. The powerful but short-lived Qin dynasty (250-207 BC) was
succeeded by the Han dynasties (206 BC-220 AD) with a fifteen-year interregnum
of Wang Mang¡¯s Xin dynasty (8-23 AD). Many Han Chinese statesmen seem to have
believed that the war against the Xiong-nu caused the demise of Qin dynasty.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
[°¢ÁÖ]
1 In mainland China, homo sapiens commenced the Middle Paleolithic period about 67,000 years ago, replacing the Early Paleolithic hunter-fisher-gatherers called homo erectus (including the Beijing Man who used fire to illuminate their caves). The Late Paleolithic period commenced around 50,000 years ago and evolved into the Neolithic by about 12,000 BC, beginning agriculture by 8,000 BC. While the humans in the Middle East started growing wheat and barley, those in northern China started farming millet and those in southern China, rice.
2 According to Guo (Nelson, 1995: 41-43), bronze casting already existed around 3,500 BC, and the most important handicraft industry in Hong-shan culture was bronze metallurgy. Guo contends that bronze-casting, pottery-making, and jade-carving were the three major industrial accomplishments of the Hong-shan culture.
3 Tibetans belong to the northern Mongoloid, but they came to speak, instead of an Altaic language, the Tibet-Chinese language which is neither Altaic nor Austric. See Cavalli-Sforza (2000: 146-8).
4 Fairbank and Goldman (1998: 39).
5 The Zhou rulers established a feudal system, enfeoffing royal family members to preside over fifty or more vassal states. In 771 BC, the Zhou imperial house moved its capital from Xi¡¯an to Luo-yang, commencing the Eastern Zhou dynasty (771-256 BC). During the Spring-and-Autumn period (722-481 BC), there were about 170 semi-independent aristocratic family-states. The beginning of the Warring States period (403-221 BC), with seven champion states, coincides with the beginning of a Little Ice Age (400 BC-300 AD).
6 See Branes (1993: 147). According to the Shi-ji, the walls built by the Yan and rebuilt by the Qin reached Laio-dong. As shown in the Di Li Tu, however, the present-day Luan River (灤ùÁ) was called the Liao River (סâ©) in old days, and the present-day Liao River was called the Lesser Liao River (á³×¡â©). Hence the ¡°Liao-dong¡± in the Shi-ji must have implied the east of Luan River.
ÞÈÑÀ ýÖÒ¿æêîî ð¯çéä¨ æØæ²õé
íþàò¡¦ò¸åÑøÁ êßá¹éöÐÑסÔÔá¶×âå¥
ÞÈÑÀ Ï鸢䍸¢ ÙÕÒ¸æêîîð¯ì£ä¨ø¢ ã·üÕ ¡¦ õéíþàò ¡¦ ò¸×¡ÔÔ
7 ß²ÏÐò¤ êàßö è¡ü¯àØÝäÔÔì¨îî çØîî ¡¦ æØìÑêÛØ» 魋Ì¿ì¨Ü× ÜÖÕÎèÝñý ùÛîî ¡¦Ðà綰Úã ìýýÖÒ¿ æØìÑêÛØ»ØÌÙ¤ êÓû×Ü×
ÞÈÑÀ Ïéð¯ìéÛÝì£ä¨Îú ü§ãÖæêîî ð¯ë»ä¨Îú ¡¦ ÜýæØæ²ÚúÊåñýùÙ ìéÔ´üåå¥ Ñõ÷×ðºðá ÔÔÝÁÜ«û× ß¾ÍÛò¸×¡ÔÔ ò¢踔êÀ ìÑÚÅýñ ¡¦ êóåÛç¤ðÊëÑñýé® ÝÁ鄰è¡ü¸Üýæ® ÔÔ綰çÛ貉ðÈàØòØÛãñý××
8 Immediately after creating a unified empire in 221 BC, Shi-huang-di started to link the frontier walls built by the old warring states to establish what later became known as the Great Wall. It was substantially extended and rebuilt by the Ming dynasty in the sixteenth century. The Great Wall, running 2,400 km east to west from Shan-hai-guan at the Gulf of Parhae (Bohai) to Jiayu-guan deep in Central Asia, marked the edge of Chinese civilization and the beginning of ¡°barbarian¡± territories. Shi-huang-di had consolidated the imperial autocracy above the law in the form of tyranny.
wthong@wontackhong.pe.kr
.
¨Ï2005 by Wontack Hong
All rights reserved
EAST ASIAN HISTORY: a korean perspective Vol. 1. No. 6. 2005. 1. 29.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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±¸¼®±â½Ã´ëÀÇ (ºÒÀ» »ç¿ëÇØ µ¿±¼À» ¹àÈù ÝÁÌÈê«ìÑÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ) È£¸ð-¿¡·ºÅõ½º¸¦ ´ëüÇϰí, Áß±¹´ë·ú¿¡ Á߱⠱¸¼®±â½Ã´ë¸¦ Àü°³Çß´Ù. Èı⠱¸¼®±â½Ã´ë´Â
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Á¤ÂøÇÑ »ç¶÷µéÀº ÃÖÃÊ¿¡ ¹Ð°ú º¸¸®¸¦ Àç¹èÇϱ⠽ÃÀÛÇÑ ¹Ý¸é, ºÏºÎ Áß±¹¿¡ Á¤ÂøÇÑ »ç¶÷µéÀº ¼ö¼ö, ³²ºÎ Áß±¹¿¡ Á¤ÂøÇÑ »ç¶÷µéÀº ½ÒÀ» Àç¹èÇϱâ
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¼ö°ø¾÷ÀÌ ¹Ù·Î ûµ¿ Á¦Ç°ÀÇ ÁÖÁ¶¿´´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. Áï, »ê¾÷À̶õ Ãø¸é¿¡¼ º¸¸é, ûµ¿ ÁÖ¹°À» ¸¸µé°í, Åä±â¸¦ ¸¸µé°í, ¿ÁÀ» ±ð¾Æ Àå½Å±¸¸¦ ¸¸µå´Â
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¿À½ºÆ®¸¯(³²¹æ) °èÅëµµ ¾Æ´Ï°í ¾ËŸÀÌ °èÅëµµ ¾Æ´Ñ, ÇÑÀå¾î(Tibeto-Chinese) °èÅëÀÇ ¾ð¾î¸¦ »ç¿ëÇÑ´Ù. Cavalli-Sforza
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¿Õ½ÇÀÌ ¼öµµ¸¦ ¼¾È¿¡¼ ³«¾çÀ¸·Î ¿Å±â¸é¼ µ¿ÁÖ(ÔÔñ², BC 771-256)½Ã´ë°¡ ½ÃÀ۵ȴÙ. ÃáÃ߽ôë(õðõÕ, BC 722-481)¿¡´Â ¾à 170¿©
°³ÀÇ ±ÍÁ· °¡¹®ÀÌ ¼Ò±Ô¸ðÀÇ µ¶¸³±¹°¡ ÇüŸ¦ À¯ÁöÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¼ÒºùÇϱâ(á³Þ¼ùÁÑ¢, BC 400-AD 300)ÀÇ ½ÃÀÛ°ú ÇÔ²², 7¿õ(ȤÀº 7°³ÀÇ
ø®íºµé)ÀÌ È°¾àÇÏ´Â Àü±¹½Ã´ë(îúÏÐ, BC 403-221)°¡ ½ÃÀ۵ȴÙ.
6. Barnes(1993: 147) ÂüÁ¶ »ç±â(ÞÈÑÀ)´Â ¿¬(æØ) ³ª¶ó¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ÃàÁ¶µÇ°í, Áø ³ª¶ó¿¡ ÀÇÇØ
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