Tripolar Interaction: Mongolian
Steppe, Manchuria and Mainland China
The Tripolar Framework of
Analysis
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¡ã 2.2. Northeast
Asia Blunden and Elvin (1998: 10-11) |
| As Barfield (1989: 12) contends, the Mongolian steppe, Manchuria, and
mainland China must be analyzed as parts of a single historical system. The
complexity of developments in East Asia is the product of changing relationships
among the Turko-Mongols, Xianbei-Tungus, and Han Chinese of these East Asian
sub-regions through time.
This tripolar framework is clearly different from the simple bipolar approach
of nomads versus the sedentary Chinese. The latter approach typically contends
that, when the nomadic peoples were not able to obtain essential commodities
such as grain and clothes from the Han Chinese through gifts, subsidized trade
at the frontier markets, and court-to-court intermarriage arrangements, they
raided China to acquire the goods they needed, but if the Chinese were willing
to provide these goods peacefully to the nomadic peoples, peace was
possible.1
Few people recognize the simple fact that, with the exception of the Mongol
Yuan (1206-1368), all of the foreign conquest dynasties in China were of
Manchurian origin: Tuoba Wei (386-534) and Qidan Liao (916-1125) originating
from the Liao-xi steppe of western Manchuria, and Ruzhen Jin (1115-1234) and
Manchu Qing (1616-1912) originating from the wild forest regions of eastern
Manchuria. The Xianbei rulers of the Wei and Liao dynasties were very much
Mongolic, while the Ruzhen rulers of Jin and Qing dynasties were definitely
Tungusic. China was never conquered from the south.
The central theme of Barfield (1989) is as follows. The extreme physical and
cultural dissimilarity between Mongolian steppe and mainland China enabled the
coexistence of Turko-Mongol nomadic empires and sedentary Han Chinese dynasties
most of the time, with the partner empires tending to flourish or perish
together. There was, however, no such an extreme dissimilarity between Manchuria
and the Great Plain of China. Western Manchuria was very much nomadic and
eastern Manchuria was heavily forested, and yet the North-East Manchurian Plain
(the Dong-bei plain consisting of Song-hua and Liao River basins) has been
producing wheat and millet. Consequently, the ¡°Barbarians¡± of Manchuria tried to
conquer the Han Chinese whenever the Chinese dynasties and the nomadic partner
empires in the Mongolian steppe were both weakened.
The Chinese chroniclers classified the ¡°barbarians¡± in the east of Greater
Xing¡¯an Range into two groups: the Eastern Hu (Dong-hu) in the Liao-xi steppe of
western Manchuria and the Eastern ¡°Barbarians¡± (Dong-yi) in the central and
eastern Manchuria.2 The Eastern Hu included the Wu-huan and Xianbei
people who had founded Yan and Tuoba Wei, and were the ethnic ancestors of the
Qidan. Their language belongs to the Mongolic branch of the Altaic
language.3
The Eastern ¡°Barbarians¡± consisted of the Ye-maek (Weimo)
Tungus who had founded Old Chosun, Puyeo, Koguryeo and Three Han, and the
Mohe-Ruzhen Tungus who were the descendants of Sushen-Yilou and the ethnic
ancestors of the core Manchu. The language of all Eastern ¡°Barbarians¡± may be
classified as a Macro-Tungusic branch of the Altaic language.
Among the Manchurian people, only the Ye-maek Tungus of central Manchuria,
the ethnic ancestors of modern Korean people, failed to establish a conquest
dynasty in China. During the first half of the last two millennia, they were
pressured by the steppe wolves of the west and forest tigers of the east to move
their seat from the Song-hua plain down to the mountainous Hun-Yalu River
valleys, and then further south to join their Ye-maek cousins who had settled in
the Korean peninsula long ago. Perhaps a failure turned into a blessing. At
least the people in the Korean peninsula continue to maintain an independent
polity as of the twenty-first century, while all those once successful
Manchurian conquerors, including those Ye-maek Tungus who had stayed behind in
Manchuria and assimilated into the Manchus, came to be absorbed into what is now
the People¡¯s Republic of China.
Janhunen (1996: vii, 15-16), a linguist, states that: ¡°Much later I realized
that both Korea and Japan are, indeed, intimately connected with Manchuria not
only by their recent historical fates, but also as far as their most remote past
and ethnic ¡®origins¡¯ are concerned.¡± In his study of the ethnic groups of North
and East Asia and their languages, Janhunen treats Korea and Japan as essential
parts of Manchuria. He makes a cynical comment that, although Korea had never
seriously considered a conquest of China, Japan played its Manchurian role so
well that it established the short-lived Manzhou-guo puppet state (1932-45),
headed by the last Qing emperor, and even launched a full-scale conquest of
China proper. He might also have mentioned the bombast of Toyotomi Hideyoshi
(1536-98), invading Korea to conquer the Ming China.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 According to Jagchid and Symons (1989: 14, 23 and 165), the decision of the
nomads to accept the nominal tributary system or attack the Han Chinese depended
on such factors as the relative strength of each party, the impact of weather or
disease upon their flocks or herds, the internal dynamics within the Chinese and
their own courts, political and psychological motives, the nature of the chaotic
frontier zones, and whether the Chinese bureaucracy was functioning
effectively.
2 Emperor Qian-long also took the matter of the phrase ¡°Eastern
Barbarians¡± in his edict (commissioning the Man-zhou Yuan-liu Gao) as just
another example of the ¡°mistreatment¡± he deplored. Emperor Qian-long
reminded us the fact that, ¡°because of their geographical locations, Mencius had
referred even to Shun as an Eastern Barbarian.¡± (See Crossley, 1999, p. 302.)
ýãïÒ Ø»ñ½ê¹×µÍÅ ÏéâÏë±ò©Ëë×Ì ÞÌä¨ì£Ò´ø¢êÅä¨Îúìí ß¾ë±Ìñæó ¡¦ ÝÕʦì¤ÝÕÜ©å´ÜýÔÔì¨ñýàã ì×ò¢ ÔðÙ£ åýØëíöàâïÔÔì¨ñýìÑ ¡¦
According to the Hou Han-shu, however, ¡°yi¡± does not imply ¡°barbarian¡± but
implies the ¡°root, origin or primary source of all things in the universe.¡±
ýùÓßö Ïéø¢ä¨çé ÔÔì¨æêîî ð¯öÒä¨çé èÝð¤éö ÔÔÛ°èØì¨ ì¨íº 柢å¥ åëìÒì»û¿ßæ Ø¿Úª柢ò¢ì»õó
Every new dynasty in China compiled an official history of its predecessor as
a tool for instructing current rulers that included an extensive description on
the neighboring ¡°barbarians¡± because they always presented security problems and
had to be put under the close attention of every Chinese dynasty.
3 They were called the Eastern Hu because they had originally been located
east of the Xiong-nu (Hu).
©2005 by Wontack
Hong All rights
reserved.
East Asian History: A Korean
Perspective
Vol. 1. No. 4. 2005. 1. 15.
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